M1 Abrams

The M1 Abrams is a main battle tank produced in the United States. The M1 is named after General Creighton Abrams, former Army Chief of Staff and Commander of US military forces in Vietnam from 1968 to 1972. It is a well armed, heavily armored, and highly mobile tank designed for modern armored ground warfare. Notable features of the M1 Abrams include the use of a powerful gas turbine engine, the adoption of sophisticated composite armor, and separate ammunition storage in a blow-out compartment for crew safety. It is one of the heaviest tanks in service, weighing in at close to 70 short tons.

The M1 Abrams entered U.S. service in 1980, replacing the 105 mm gun, full tracked M60 Patton main battle tank. It did, however, serve for over a decade alongside the improved M60A3, which had entered service in 1978. Three main versions of the M1 Abrams have been deployed, the M1, M1A1, and M1A2, incorporating improved armament, protection and electronics. These improvements, as well as periodic upgrades to older tanks have allowed this long-serving vehicle to remain in front-line service. It is the principal main battle tank of the United States Army and Marine Corps, and the armies of Egypt, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and since 2007, Australia.

Background
The first attempt to replace the aging M60 series of tanks was the abortive MBT-70, developed in partnership with West Germany. The M60 was itself a gradual evolution of a design starting with the World War II era M26 Pershing, with a very tall profile, and average armor and weaponry compared to the contemporary Soviet designs. The MBT-70 was very ambitious, like many American weapons programs of the 1960s. It had a gun launched missile system, kneeling suspension, a driver housed in the turret, and various other ideas that ultimately proved unsuccessful. Cancellation of this project paved the way for the much more successful M1 Abrams tank, which did not incorporate most of the troublesome innovations tried by the MBT-70.

Development
The XM1 Abrams was designed by Chrysler Defense (in 1979, General Dynamics Land Systems Division purchased Chrysler Defense Division) and is currently produced by General Dynamics Corporation in Lima, Ohio, and first entered US Army service in 1980. It was armed with the license-built version of the 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun.

An improved version of the M1, the M1A1, was introduced in 1985. The M1A1 has the M256 120 mm smoothbore cannon developed by Rheinmetall AG of Germany for the Leopard 2, improved armor, and a CBRN protection system. The M1A2 is a further improvement of the M1A1 with a commander's independent thermal viewer and weapon station, position navigation equipment, digital data bus and a radio interface unit. The M1A2 SEP (System Enhancement Package) added digital maps, FBCB2 (Force XXI Battlefield Command Brigade and Below) capabilities, and an improved cooling system to maintain crew compartment temperature with the addition of multiple computer systems to the M1A2 tank.

Further upgrades include depleted uranium armor for all variants, a system overhaul that returns all A1s to like-new condition (M1A1 AIM), a digital enhancement package for the A1 (M1A1D), a commonality program to standardize parts between the U.S. Army and the Marine Corps (M1A1HC) and an electronic upgrade for the A2 (M1A2 SEP).

During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm and for Bosnia, some M1A1s were modified with armor upgrades. The M1 can be equipped with mine plow and mine roller attachments if needed. The M1 chassis also serves as a basis for the Grizzly combat engineering vehicle and the M104 Wolverine heavy assault bridge.

Over 8,800 M1 and M1A1 tanks have been produced at a cost of US$2.35–$4.30 million per unit, depending on the variant.

Design features
Armor
The Abrams is protected by the British designed 'Chobham armor', a further development of the British 'Burlington' armor. Chobham is a composite armor formed by spacing multiple layers of various alloys of steel, ceramics, plastic composites, and kevlar, giving an estimated maximum (frontal turret) 1320-1620 millimeters of RHAe versus HEAT (and other chemical energy rounds) and 940–960 mm versus kinetic energy penetrators. It may also be fitted with reactive armor over the track skirts if needed (as in the Urban Survival Kit) and Slat armor over the rear of the tank and rear fuel cells to protect against ATGMs. Fuel and ammunition are in armored compartments with blowout panels to protect the crew from the risk of the tank's own ammunition cooking off if the tank is damaged. Protection against spalling is provided by a kevlar liner. Beginning in 1987, M1A1 tanks received improved armor packages that incorporated depleted uranium (DU) mesh in their armor at the front of the turret and the front of the hull. Armor reinforced in this manner offers significantly increased resistance towards all types of anti-tank weaponry, but at the expense of adding considerable weight to the tank, as depleted uranium is 1.7 times denser than lead. The first M1A1 tanks to receive this upgrade were tanks stationed in Germany, since they were the first line of defense against the Soviet Union. US-based tank battalions participating in Operation Desert Storm received an emergency program to upgrade their tanks with depleted uranium armor immediately before the onset of the campaign. M1A2 tanks uniformly incorporate depleted uranium armor, and all M1A1 tanks in active service have been upgraded to this standard as well, the armor thickness is believed to be equivalent to 24 inches (610 mm) of RHA. The strength of the armor is estimated to be about the same as similar western, contemporary main battle tanks such as the Leopard 2. In the Persian Gulf War, Abrams tanks survived multiple hits at relatively close ranges from Iraqi Lion of Babylon tanks and ATGMs. M829A1 "Silver Bullet" APFSDS rounds from other M1A1 Abrams were unable to penetrate the front and side armor (even at close ranges) in friendly fire incidents as well as an incident in which another Abrams tried to destroy an Abrams that got stuck in mud and had to be abandoned.

In addition to the advanced armor, some Abrams, are equipped with a Missile Countermeasure Device that can impede the function of guidance systems of semiactive control line-of-sight (SACLOS) wire and radio guided anti-tank missiles (Russian AT-3, AT-4, AT-5, AT-6 and the like) and thermally and infrared guided missiles (ATGM). This device is mounted on the turret roof in front of the Loader's hatch, and can lead some people to mistake Abrams fitted with these devices for the M1A2 version, since the Commander's Independent Thermal Viewer on the latter is mounted in the same place, though the MCD is box-shaped and fixed in place as opposed to cylindrical and rotating like the CITV.

In the chance that the Abrams does suffer damage resulting in a fire in the crew compartment, the tank is equipped with a halon fire-suppression system that automatically engages and extinguishes fires in seconds.

Armament
Main armament
M68A1 rifled gun
The main armament of the original model M1 was the M68A1 105 mm rifled tank gun firing a variety of high explosive anti-tank (HEAT), high explosive, white phosphorus and an anti-personnel (multiple flechette) round. This gun is a license-built version of the British Royal Ordnance L7 gun. While being a reliable weapon and widely used by many NATO nations, a cannon with lethality beyond the 3 kilometer range was needed to combat newer armor technologies. To attain that lethality, projectile diameter needed to be increased. The M68A1's performance in terms of accuracy and armor-piercing penetration is on par with the M256A1 up to 3 kilometers out, but beyond that range the 105 mm projectile lacks the kinetic energy to defeat modern armor packages.

he main armament of the M1A1 and M1A2 is the M256A1 120 mm smoothbore gun, designed by Rheinmetall AG of Germany, manufactured under license in the United States by Watervliet Arsenal, New York. The M256A1 is a variant of the Rheinmetall 120 mm L/44 gun carried on the German Leopard 2 on all variants up to the Leopard 2A5. Leopard 2A6 replaced the L/44 barrel with a longer L/55.

The M256A1 fires a variety of rounds. The M829A2 was developed specifically to address the threats posed by a Soviet T-90 or T-80U tank equipped with kontakt-5 Explosive Reactive Armor. It also fires HEAT shaped charge rounds such as the M830, the latest version of which (M830A1) incorporates a sophisticated multi-mode electronic sensing fuse and more fragmentation which allows it to be used effectively against armored vehicles, personnel, and low-flying aircraft. The Abrams uses a manual loader, due to the belief that having a crewman reload the gun is faster and more reliable.[citation needed] and because autoloaders do not allow for separate ammunition storage in the turret.[citation needed]

The new M1028 120 mm anti-personnel canister cartridge was brought into service early for use in the aftermath of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. It contains 1,098 3/8 inch tungsten balls which spread from the muzzle to produce a shotgun effect lethal out to 600 m. The tungsten balls can be used to clear enemy dismounts, break up hasty ambush sites in urban areas, clear defiles, stop infantry attacks and counter-attacks and support friendly infantry assaults by providing covering fire. The canister round is also a highly effective breaching round and can level cinder block walls and knock man-sized holes in reinforced concrete walls for infantry raids at distances up to 75 meters.

In addition to this, the new XM1111 (Mid-Range-Munition Kinetic Energy) is also in development. Essentially a cannon-fired guided round, it has a range of roughly 12 km and uses a KE warhead which is rocket assisted in its final phase of flight. This is intended to be the best penetrator yet, an improvement over the US 3rd generation DU penetrator (estimated penetration 790 mm).

Secondary armament
The Abrams tank has three machine guns:
A .50 cal. (12.7 mm) M2 machine gun in front of the commander's hatch. On the M1, M1IP and M1A1, this gun is on a powered mount and can be fired using a 3× magnification sight, known as the Commander's Weapon Station (CWS for short), while the vehicle is "buttoned up" with all its hatches closed to protect the crew. On the M1A2 & M1A2SEP, this gun is on a flex mount (seen at right), the Commander having to expose himself to fire the weapon manually. With the forthcoming TUSK addon kit, an M2 or an Mk 19 grenade launcher can be mounted on the CROWS remote weapons platform (similar to the Protector M151 remote weapon station used on the Stryker family of vehicles). The upgrade variant called M1A1 Abrams Integrated Management (AIM) equips the .50 caliber gun with a thermal sight for accurate night and other low-visibility shooting.

A 7.62 mm M240 machine gun in front of the loader's hatch on a skate mount. Some of these have been fitted with gun shields during the ongoing conflict in Iraq as seen in the image at right, as well as night-vision scopes for low-visibility engagements.

A second 7.62 mm M240 machine gun in a coaxial mount to the right of the main gun. The coaxial MG is aimed and fired with the same computer fire control system used for the main gun.
(Optional) A second 12.7 mm M2 machine gun can be mounted directly above the main gun in a remote weapons platform as part of the TUSK upgrade kit mentioned below.

The turret is fitted with two six-barreled smoke grenade launchers (USMC M1A1s use an eight-barreled version). These can create a thick smoke that blocks both vision and thermal imaging, and can also be armed with chaff. The engine is also equipped with a smoke generator that is triggered by the driver. When activated, fuel is sprayed on the engine manifold, creating the thick smoke. However, due to change from diesel as a primary fuel to the use of JP-8, this system is disabled on most Abrams today, because JP-8 causes the tanks to catch fire when sprayed on the manifold. For the US Army in previous years, the Abrams usually maintained the provision for storing an M16 rifle or M4 carbine inside the turret in case the crew is required to leave the tank under potentially hostile conditions; while the crewmen were supplied with the M9 Beretta pistol as a personal sidearm. Considering the current (often dismounted) role of American armored crewmen and contemporary operating environments, though, current US Army crews maintain a rifle or carbine for each crewman. During Iraqi Freedom some crews were also issued M136 AT4 shoulder-fired anti-tank weapons under the assumption that they might have to engage heavy armor in tight urban areas where the main gun could not be brought to bear.

Aiming
The Abrams is equipped with a ballistic fire-control computer that uses data from a variety of sources, including the thermal or daylight Gunner's Primary Sight (GPS), all computing and displaying one of three components of the ballistic solution - lead angle, ammunition type, and range to the target. These three components are determined using a laser rangefinder, crosswind sensor, a pendulum static cant sensor, data on the ammunition type, tank-specific boresight alignment data, ammunition temperature, air temperature, barometric pressure, a muzzle reference sensor (MRS) that determines and compensates for barrel droop at the muzzle due to gravitational pull and barrel heating due to firing or sunlight, and target speed determined by tracking rate tachometers in the Gunner's or Commander's Controls Handles allowing for target speed input into the ballistic solution. The fire-control system uses these data to compute a firing solution for the gunner. The ballistic solution generated ensures a hit percentage greater than 95 percent at nominal ranges. Either the commander or gunner can fire the main gun. Additionally, the Commander's Independent Thermal Viewer (CITV) on the M1A2 can be used to locate targets and pass them on for the gunner to engage while the commander scans for new targets. In the event of a malfunction or damage to the primary sight system, the main and coaxial weapons can be manually aimed using a telescopic scope boresighted to the main gun known as the Gunner's Auxiliary Sight (GAS). The GAS has two interchangeable reticles; one for HEAT and MPAT (MultiPurpose AntiTank) rounds and one for APFSDS and STAFF (Smart Target-Activated Fire and Forget) ammunition. Turret traverse and main gun elevation can be accomplished with manual handles and cranks in the event of a Fire Control System or Hydraulic System failure. The commander's M2 .50 caliber machine gun on the M1 and M1A1 is aimed by a 3x magnification sight incorporated into the Commander's Weapon Station (CWS), while the M1A2 uses either the machine gun's own iron sights, or a remote aiming system such as the CROWS system when used as part of the TUSK (Tank Urban Survival Kit). The loader's M240 machine gun is aimed either with the built-in iron sights or with a thermal scope mounted on the machine gun.

Mobility
The M1 Abrams is powered by a 1500 hp (1119 kW) Honeywell AGT 1500 (originally made by Lycoming) gas turbine, and a six speed (four forward, two reverse) Allison X-1100-3B Hydro-Kinetic automatic transmission, giving it a governed top speed of 45 mph (72 km/h) on paved roads, and 30 mph (48 km/h) cross-country. With the engine governor removed, speeds of around 60 mph (97 km/h) are possible on an improved surface; however, damage to the drive train (especially to the tracks) and an increased risk of injuries to the crew can occur at speeds above 45 mph (72 km/h). The tank for all intents and purposes was built around this engine. The tank can be fueled with diesel fuel, kerosene, any grade of motor gasoline, JP-4 jet fuel, or JP-8 jet fuel; the US Army uses JP-8 jet fuel in order to simplify logistics. The Royal Australian Armoured Corps' M1A1 AIM SA uses diesel fuel; it is cheaper and makes practical sense for Australian military logistics. The gas turbine propulsion system has proven quite reliable in practice and combat, but its high fuel consumption is a serious logistic issue (starting up the turbine alone consumes nearly 10 gallons of fuel). The engine burns more than 1 gallon per mile and 12 gallons per hour when idle. The high speed, high temperature jet blast emitted from the rear of M1 Abrams tanks makes it difficult for the infantry to proceed shadowing the tank in urban combat. The turbine is very quiet when compared to diesel engines of similar power output and produces a significantly different sound from a contemporary diesel tank engine, reducing the audible distance of the sound, thus earning the Abrams the nickname, "whispering death" during its first REFORGER exercise. Honeywell was developing another gas turbine engine with General Electric for the XM2001 Crusader program that was also to be a replacement for the AGT-1500 engine already in the Abrams tank. The new LV100-5 engine is lighter and smaller (43% fewer parts) with rapid acceleration, quieter running and no visible exhaust. It also features a 33% reduction in fuel consumption (50% less when idle) and near drop-in replacement. The Abrams-Crusader Common Engine Program was shelved when the Crusader program was canceled, however Phase 2 of Army's PROSE (Partnership for Reduced O&S Costs, Engine) program calls for further development of the LV100-5 and replacement of the current AGT-1500 engine. Future US tanks may return to reciprocating engines for propulsion, as 4-stroke diesel engines have proven quite successful in other modern heavy tanks, e.g. the Leopard 2, Challenger 2 and Merkava.

The Abrams can be carried by a C-5 Galaxy or a C-17 Globemaster III. The limited capacity (two combat-ready in a C-5, one combat-ready tank in a C-17) caused serious logistical problems when deploying the tanks for the First Gulf War, though there was enough time for 1,848 tanks to be transported by ship.

Combat history
As the Abrams entered service in the 1980s, they would operate alongside M60A3 within the United States military, and with other NATO tanks in numerous Cold War exercises. These exercises usually took place in Western Europe, especially West Germany, but also in some other countries like South Korea. During such training, Abrams crews honed their skills for use against the men and equipment of the Soviet Union. However, by 1991 the USSR had collapsed and the Abrams would have its trial by fire in the Middle East.

Operation Desert Storm
The Abrams remained untested in combat until the Gulf War in 1991. A total of 1,848 M1A1s were deployed to Saudi Arabia. The M1A1 was superior to Iraq's Soviet-era T-55 and T-62 tanks, as well as Iraqi assembled Russian T-72s, and locally-produced copies (Asad Babil tank). The T-72s like most Soviet export designs lacked night vision systems and then-modern rangefinders, though they did have some night fighting tanks with older active infrared systems or floodlights—just not the latest starlight scopes and passive infrared scopes as on the Abrams. Only 23 M1A1s were taken out of service in the Gulf and one of these losses resulted in crew deaths from Iraqi fire. Some others took minor combat damage, with little effect on their operational readiness. Very few Abrams tanks were hit by enemy fire, and there was only one fatality, along with a handful of woundings as a result.

The M1A1 was capable of making kills at ranges in excess of 2,500 m. This range was crucial in combat against tanks of Soviet design in Desert Storm, as the effective range of the main gun in the Soviet/Iraqi tanks was less than 2,000 meters (Iraqi tanks could not fire anti-tank missiles like their Russian counterparts). This meant Abrams tanks could hit Iraqi tanks before the enemy got in range—a decisive advantage in this kind of combat. In friendly fire incidents, the front armor and fore side turret armor survived direct APFSDS hits from other M1A1s. This was not the case for the side armor of the hull and the rear armor of the turret, as both areas were penetrated at least in two occasions by friendly DU ammunition during the Battle of Norfolk.

M901 ITV

The M901 ITV (Improved TOW Vehicle) is a United States Army armored vehicle designed to carry a dual M220 TOW launcher. It is based on the ubiquitous M113 Armored Personnel Carrier chassis.

Equipment
The M901 ITV provides the crew and weapon system protection from small-arms fire and artillery fragments. The squad leader has a 270-degree range of view through the squad leader's periscope (SLP). The turret launcher has the capability for day and night acquisition and tracking of targets, and it provides firing coverages of 360 degrees in azimuth and +35 to −30 degrees in elevation. The ITV has stowage provisions for tripod-mounted TOW components configured so the ground system can be dismounted and set up in three to five minutes. In addition, the ITV can ford small bodies of water (40 inches or less) and is air transportable. It has the following characteristics:

A hydraulically and electrically powered "hammerhead" turret, attached to a modified M27 cupola, that can be operated manually.

A complete M220-series TOW weapon system stowed and strapped in fixed mounting brackets. The daysight tracker and nightsight (AN/TAS-4 or AN/TAS-4a) are mounted in an operational ready state at the head of the turret. The missile guidance system is also connected at the base of the turret.

A dual M220 TOW launcher.
M243 smoke grenade launchers.
A 3x acquisition sight with a 25-degree field of view.
Remote actuators that allow daysight tracker and nightsight adjustments.
A machine gun mounted on a traversing rail.

The system is capable of firing two missiles without reloading and carries ten TOW rounds in the missile rack. Reloading is performed under armor protection and is accomplished by tilting the launching apparatus back so that the crew can reach the turret through the carrier's rear roof hatch. The missile launcher targeting head is at the end of a pivoting arm which raises the launcher assembly for firing. When stowed, the turret is aimed down and to the rear of the vehicle. A major limitation of the M901 is that it is practically unable to move while the turret is in firing position, and unable to fire while it is in the stowed position. Moving from the firing to the stowed position is a procedure that takes several seconds and some skill on the part of the operator.

M1128 Mobile Gun System

The Stryker Mobile Gun System is an eight-wheeled armored fighting vehicle mounting a 105 mm tank gun, based on the Canadian LAV III light-armored vehicle, which in turn is based on the Mowag Piranha. It is in service with the United States and was also being considered for adoption by several other countries, including Canada.

History
Following the end of the Cold War some theorists believed that the existing suite of U.S. armored vehicles, designed largely to fight Soviet mechanized forces in Europe, were not well suited to the lower-intensity missions U.S. armed forces would be tasked with. This led to the development of a new armored fighting vehicle designed for lower-intensity combat, rather than large-scale battle.

This wheeled vehicle would mount a tank gun like the 105 mm gun used in the previous generation of NATO tanks, like the M60 Patton, Centurion, and the Leopard. But, while it would take on some of the roles of tanks, it is not a tank replacement. While it is unlikely to encounter another tank on the modern battlefield, its cousin the M1126 ICV has encountered rocket propelled grenades in Iraq.

Because the Mobile Gun System uses the same chassis as other Mowag Piranha derivatives, it would have the same mobility, and could be rescued or salvaged by a Piranha-derived recovery vehicle. But without a radical redesign, it too would require some re-assembly before it could drive into combat, after being delivered by a C-130.

The turrets proposed for these vehicles have been low profile, remotely controlled, and autoloading. The United States Army version mounts a 105 mm M68A1 rifled cannon (M68A1E4), atop a heavier Stryker chassis, dubbed the M1128 Mobile Gun System.

Canada had liquidated about half of its park of Leopard tanks in the early 2000s, with the intention of replacing them with the airmobile Mobile Gun System. The decision was reversed. In fall of 2006 a squadron of Leopards were sent to Afghanistan, and as of the summer of 2007 Canada is in the process of acquiring 100 surplus Leopard 2 main battle tanks for quick deployment.

M2/M3 Bradley Fighting Vehicle

The M2 Bradley IFV (Infantry Fighting Vehicle) and M3 Bradley CFV (Cavalry Fighting Vehicle) are American infantry fighting vehicles manufactured by BAE Systems Land and Armaments, (formerly United Defense).

As with other infantry fighting vehicles, the Bradley is designed to transport infantry offering at least some armored protection while providing fire cover to dismounted troops and suppressing enemy tanks and armored vehicles. The M2 holds a crew of three: a commander, a gunner and a driver; as well as six fully equipped soldiers. The M3 mainly conducts scout missions and carries two scouts in addition to the regular crew of three.

Overview
The Bradley IFV was designed largely in response to the Soviet BMP family of infantry fighting vehicles, and to serve as both an APC, and a tank-killer. One specific design requirement was that it should be as fast as the new M1 Abrams main battle tank so that they could maintain formations while moving, something which the older M113 Armored Personnel Carrier could not do, as it had been designed to complement the older M60 Patton.

The 25 mm cannon fires up to 200 rounds per minute and is accurate up to 2500 m depending on the ammunition used (HE or APDS-T). The twin TOW2B missiles are capable of destroying most hostile tanks at a maximum range of 3750 m. A large drawback of the TOW is that it can only be fired while the vehicle is stationary. The Bradley also carries an M240C coaxial 7.62 mm medium machine gun, located to the right of the 25 mm chain gun. It is highly capable in cross-country open terrain, in accordance with one of the main design objectives of keeping pace with the M1 Abrams main battle tank. Whereas the M113 would float without much preparation, the Bradley was initially designed to float by deploying a flotation curtain around the vehicle. This caused some drownings due to failures during its first trials. Armor upgrades negate this capability.

The vehicle hull is of aluminum construction, one of the points used by critics to deride the vehicle. Aluminum armor tends to vaporize in the face of HEAT warheads; this and the storage of large quantities of ammunition in the vehicle initially raised questions about its combat survivability. Spaced laminate belts and high hardness steel skirts have been added to later versions to improve armor protection, although this increases overall weight to 33 tons. Actual combat operations, however, have not shown the Bradley to be overtly deficient as losses have been few. In friendly fire incidents in Desert Storm, many crew members survived hits that resulted in total losses for lighter USMC LAV 25 vehicles.

USAF LTC James Burton conducted highly publicized live fire tests where it was found that the center of the vehicle was most likely to be hit. His efforts to redesign the Bradley were not fully implemented; Bradleys still store their fuel dangerously in the vehicle center, whereas M113A3s have their fuel stored on the left and right rear to prevent fires/explosions inside the troop compartment. Despite this perceived vulnerability, the Bradley Fighting Vehicle has proven to be highly survivable when hit by enemy fire.

The Bradley series has been widely modified. Its chassis is the basis for the M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System, the M4 C2V battlefield command post, and the M6 Bradley Linebacker air defense vehicle. Armed with a quad Stinger surface to air missile launcher (instead of the TOW anti-tank missiles) and maintaining the 25 mm autocannon, the M6 Bradley Linebacker Air Defense Vehicle possesses a unique role in the U.S. Army, providing highly mobile air defense at the front line. Its suspension system has also been used on upgraded versions of the US Marines' Amphibious Assault Vehicle.

The total cost of the program is $5,664,100,000, and the average unit costs $3,166,000.

Production history
The Bradley, named after WWII General Omar N. Bradley, consists of two types of vehicles, the M2 Infantry Fighting Vehicle and the M3 Cavalry Fighting Vehicle. The M3 CFV was originally planned to be named after General Jacob L. Devers, but it was decided the Bradley name would apply to both, since both vehicles are based on the same chassis (they differ in only some details). The M2 carries a crew of three and a six-man infantry squad. The M3 carries the crew of three and a two-man scout team and additional radios, TOW and Dragon or Javelin missiles.
Since entering service with the U.S. Army in 1981, 6,724 Bradleys have been produced. (4,641 M2s and 2,083 M3s).

The troubled development history of the Bradley is described in a book by Air Force Lt. Col. James Burton, which was adapted for the 1998 film The Pentagon Wars starring Kelsey Grammer and Cary Elwes. The full story of the Bradley, as seen in the 1998 film, exhibits the number of hierarchical oppositions faced by Lt. Col. Burton who insisted on performing "real life" tests to measure accurately the vehicle's survivability in combat. Tests showed that the Bradley, in its initial version, had to be totally redesigned in order to protect the life of soldiers when hit by a shell or a missile. It was only through the support of the press and Congress that Burton was finally authorized to continue this rigorous testing, hence forcing the redesign of the vehicle which saved the lives of more than 50 infantry men in the two Gulf Wars.

Combat history
During the Gulf War, M2 Bradleys destroyed more Iraqi armored vehicles than the M1 Abrams. 20 Bradleys were lost; 3 by enemy fire and 17 due to friendly fire incidents; another 12 were damaged. The gunner of one Bradley was killed when his vehicle was hit by Iraqi fire, possibly from an Iraqi BMP-1, during the Battle of 73 Easting. To remedy some problems that were identified as contributing factors in the friendly fire incidents, infrared identification panels and other marking/identification measures were added to the Bradleys.

In the Iraq War, the Bradley has proved somewhat vulnerable to IED and RPG attacks, but casualties have been light—the doctrine being to allow the crew to escape at the expense of the vehicle. As of early 2006, total combat losses included 55 Bradleys.

Variants

M2/M3
The M2 (also sometimes written M2A0 to help prevent confusion) was the basic production model, first produced in 1982. The M2A0 can be identified by its standard TOW missile system and 500 horsepower (370 kW) engine with HMPT-500 Hydromechanical transmission. Basic features also included an integrated sight unit for the M242 25 mm, and thermal imaging system. The M2A0 was amphibious with the use of a "Swim Barrier" or "Floatation Screen" and was C-141 and C-5 transportable. All M2A0 vehicles have been upgraded to improved standards. The A0 series armor protects the vehicle through a full 360 degrees against 14.5 mm API rounds.

M2A0s and other early production models of the M2 include seating for a total of seven dismounted infantrymen in the rear of the vehicle, in lieu of the six carried in later versions of the vehicle. Seating was adjusted on later models to make dismounting easier and because changes in doctrine and additional armor plating on the sides of the vehicle had made use of firing port weapons irrelevant.

M2A1/M3A1
Introduced in 1986, the A1 variant included an improved TOW II missile system, a Gas Particulate Filter Units (GPFU) NBC system, and a fire-suppression system. By 1992, the M2A1s had begun being remanufactured to upgraded standards.

M2A2/M3A2
Introduced in 1988, the A2 received an improved 600-horsepower (447 kW) engine with an HMPT-500-3 Hydromechanical transmission and improved armor (both passive and the ability to mount explosive reactive armor). The new armor protects the Bradley against 30 mm APDS rounds and RPGs (or similar anti-armor weapons). Ammunition storage was reorganized and spall liners were added. The M2A2 was qualified to be transported by the C-17 Globemaster III. M2A2s will all eventually be modified to M2A2 ODS or M2A3 standard.

M2A2 ODS/ODS-E and M3A2 ODS
The "Operation Desert Storm" and "Operation Desert Storm-Engineer" improvements were based on lessons learned during the first Gulf War in 1991. The major improvements included an eye-safe laser rangefinder (ELRF), a tactical navigation system (TACNAV) incorporating the Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR) and the Digital Compass Systems (DCS), a missile countermeasure device designed to defeat first-generation wire-guided missiles, and the Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2) Battlefield Command Information System. The internal stowage was further improved and a thermal imaging system was added for the driver. The seating in the rear of the vehicle was changed to a bench configuration (in place of the old single seat arrangement that greatly increased dismount time) to allow three dismounts to sit on either side (for a total of six). Lastly, an MRE heater was added to the vehicle to assist in the preparation of food while in the field or warzone.

M2A3/M3A3
Introduced in 2000, the A3 upgrades make the Bradley IFV/CFV totally digital and upgrade or improve existing electronics systems throughout improving target acquisition and fire control, navigation, and situational awareness. Also, the survivability of the vehicle is upgraded with a series of armor improvements, again both passive and reactive, as well as improved fire-suppression systems and NBC equipment.

Bradley Stinger Fighting Vehicle (BSFV)
The BSFV is designed specifically for the carriage and support of a Stinger MANPADS team.

Warhammer Bradley

Modified M2A2 ODSs with the TOW missile system replaced with a 2 tube Javelin Missile System, and ISU (Integrated Sight Unit) modifications for increased anti-tank lethality, without the need to continually track the target.

M6 Linebacker
An air defense variant, these vehicles are modified M2A2 ODSs with the TOW missile system replaced with a four-tube Stinger missile system. These are due to be retired from U.S. service.

M7 Bradley Fire Support Vehicle
The Bradley FiST is designed to replace existing forward observation vehicles in the U.S. Army inventory, and adds an inertial navigation system and a new targeting station control panel. A mission-processor unit automates the fire-request system.

Armament
The Bradley is equipped with the M242 25 mm chain gun as its main weapon. The M242 has a single barrel with an integrated dual-feed mechanism and remote feed selection. The gun contains ammunition in two ready boxes of 70 rounds and 230 rounds each for a total of 300 ready rounds and carries 600 rounds in storage (in the M2 Infantry Fighting Vehicle variant) or 1200 stowed rounds (in the M3 Cavalry Fighting Vehicle variant). The two ready boxes allow selectable mix of rounds such as the M791 APDS-T (Armor-Piercing Discarding Sabot (with) Tracer), and M792 HEI-T (High Explosive Incendiary (with) Tracer) rounds. The tungsten APDS-T rounds proved highly effective in Desert Storm being capable of knocking out many Iraqi vehicles including several kills on T-55 tanks. There have even been reports of kills against Iraqi T-72 tanks (at close range). Subsequent ammunition developments resulted in the M919 APFSDS-T (Armor-Piercing Fin Stabilized Discarding Sabot with Tracer) round, which contains a finned depleted uranium penetrator similar in concept to armor piercing munitions used in modern tanks. The M919 was used in combat during the 2003 invasion phase of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF).

It is also armed with a M240C machine gun mounted coaxially to the M242, with 2,200 rounds of 7.62 mm ammunition. For engaging heavier targets (such as when acting in an anti-tank fashion), the Bradley has a TOW missile system onboard, which was changed to fire TOW II missiles, onwards from the M2A1 model. M2 infantry Bradleys also have turreted firing ports for a number of M231 Firing Port Weapons or FPWs, providing a button-up firing position to replace the top-side gunners on the old ACAV, though the M231 is rarely employed. Initial variants carried 6 total, but the side ports were plated over with new armor used on the A2 and A3 variants, leaving only the two rear-facing mounts in the loading ramp. No versions of the M3 CFV carry firing port weapons, though early versions had all six firing port mounts fitted and plated over, while newer versions retain the two ramp mounted firing ports (again, plated over). All versions are also equipped with two four-barreled smoke grenade launchers on the front of the turret for creating defensive smoke screens, and can also be loaded with chaff and flares.

Wiesel AWC

The Wiesel Armoured Weapons Carrier is a German light air-transportable armoured fighting vehicle, more specifically a lightly-armoured weapons carrier. It is similar to historical scouting tankettes in size and form.

The Wiesel was used in several of the Bundeswehr's missions abroad (UNOSOM II, IFOR, SFOR, KFOR, TFH, ISAF).

History
The Wiesel was developed for the German Army to meet a requirement for an air-transportable light armored vehicle for use by its airborne troops, as the infantry of the German Bundeswehr, especially airborne infantry, was considered unprepared to successfully fight enemy main battle tanks (MBT) in the 1970s. The requirements were that the vehicle should fit in common NATO transport planes and could eventually be air-dropped. It should be able to fight infantry as well as enemy tanks or aircraft. Porsche produced some prototypes of the future fighting vehicle for the Bundeswehr in 1975, but the Bundeswehr stopped the project in 1978 because of the lack of funds. Nevertheless Porsche did not stop development because of interest from other countries.
The Wiesel was finally introduced as new weapon system for the Bundeswehr with deliveries beginning in the late 1980s. The vehicle was named Wiesel ("weasel") because of its small size and agility, which make it very difficult to detect on the battlefield.

Configuration
Depending on the exact configuration, the length is about 3.55 meters, the height 1.82 meters, and the width 1.82 meters. The weight is only 2.75 tons, that means it weighs less than the US Humvee military light truck. The engine is a 64 kW Audi 2.1-litre diesel engine giving a top speed of 70 km/h (45 mph). The Wiesel can ford 0.5 m deep and cross a 1.2 m trench. It is manufactured by Rheinmetall AG.

The chassis is made of steel armour and can resist the common 5.56 mm and 7.62 mm small arms ammunition. Air dropping the vehicle from a plane with parachutes was tested, but was not successful; four test-vehicles were destroyed. Nevertheless the Wiesel can easily be flown in by transport helicopters, a single CH-53 helicopter can fly in two at once, and common transport planes can carry four or more Wiesel vehicles.

Variants
Various versions of the Wiesel exist, with different weapon configurations including machine guns, antitank missiles, and anti-aircraft missiles.
Wiesel 1
Wiesel 1 Aufklärung - reconnaissance
Wiesel 1 ATM HOT - anti-tank vehicle fitted with HOT missiles
Wiesel 1 ATM HOT Variant 1 - fitted with UTM-800 turret
Wiesel 1 Radar - fitted with RATAC-S multi-purpose radar
Wiesel 1 ATM TOW - anti-tank vehicle fitted with TOW missiles
Wiesel 1 ATM TOW Resupply - cargo carrier fitted with racks for TOW missiles
Wiesel 1 BTM208 - fitted with a SAMM BTM208 turret armed with a MG3 and a M2HB machine gun
Wiesel 1 MK20 - fire support version with a Rheinmetall MK 20 Rh202 20 mm cannon
Wiesel 1 MK20 Variant 1 - Uprated with new sight
Wiesel 1 MK25 - 25 mm armed version
Wiesel 2

The Wiesel 2 is a stretched version of the Wiesel 1, with a fifth roadwheel. The engine was changed to a 1.9l Volkswagen in-line four-cylinder turbo diesel with direct injection and intercooler, giving 109 hp coupled to a ZF automatic transmission. Generally bigger, faster and stronger with advanced features for the protection of the crew such as enhanced armour, and an air conditioning system which protects the crew from biological and chemical weapons.
Wiesel 2 BF/UF (LeFlaSys Command) - air defence unit command post
Wiesel 2 AFF (LeFlaSys Radar) - fitted with air defence radar
Wiesel 2 Ozelot (LeFlaSys Launcher) - fitted with air defence missile launcher
Wiesel 2 Ozelot (LeFlaSys Launcher Variant 1) - retrofitted with box-type launchers
Wiesel 2 Ambulance
Wiesel 2 APC - 2 + 4 crew armoured personnel carrier
Wiesel 2 Command - battalion command post
Wiesel 2 Mortar - 120mm mortar
Wiesel 2 Mortar Variant 1 - mortar version with external supports
Wiesel 2 Argus - reconnaissance
Wiesel 2 Carrier - ammunition resupply
Wiesel 2 Pionier - combat engineer reconnaissance
Wiesel 2 Primus - reconnaissance and fire control
Wiesel 2 ATM HOT - anti-tank vehicle fitted with HOT missiles
Wiesel 2 SYRANO - Robotic system for the French Army

Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle

The Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle (EFV) is the newest USMC amphibious vehicle, intended for deployment in 2015. It was renamed from the Advanced Amphibious Assault Vehicle in late 2003. The USMC has reduced the number to be purchased from 1,013 to 573 AAAVs by 2015 due to escalation in unit cost.

The vehicle is an amphibious armored personnel carrier; launched at sea, from an amphibious assault ship beyond the horizon, able to transport a full Marine rifle squad to shore. It will maneuver cross country with an agility and mobility equal to or greater than the M1 Abrams.
The EFV is designed to replace the aging AAV, and is the Marine Corps' number one priority ground weapon system acquisition. It has three times the speed in water and about twice the armor of the AAV, as well as superior firepower.

Background
In the 1980s the Marine corps developed an "over the horizon" strategy for ocean based assaults. The intention was to protect naval ships from enemy mines and shore defenses. It included the MV-22 Osprey, the Landing Craft Air Cushioned (LCAC), and the EFV.
Development for the AAAV began on the late 1970s with prototypes in the early 1980s at the command at Camp Pendleton. The predecessor to the AAAV the LVTP7 life expectancy was extended in 1983/1984 by use of the SLEP (Service Life Extension Program) which modified and upgraded many of the key systems creating the LVTP7A1 then designated the AAVP7A1. At the time these vehicles were released the USMC had anticipated and communicated delivery of the AAAV by the mid 1990s (1993). Because of delays the AAVP7A1 has received another SLEP type upgrade in the mid 1990s while the USMC still awaits final development and delivery of the AAAV now over 14 years behind original projected time frames.

On 7th April 2009, Defense Secretary Robert Gates said that the EFV program will “will continue as-is,” pending an amphibious review in the 2010 Quadrennial Defense Review.

Design
The General Dynamics Land Systems EFV is an amphibious armored tracked vehicle with an aluminum hull. The engine is a custom MTU Friedrichshafen diesel (MT883) with two modes of operation; a high power mode for planing over the sea, and a low power mode for land travel.
It has a crew of three and can transport 17 Marines and their equipment.

There is a Command Platform version with secure command and control electronics (and seven work stations), but lacking the 30 mm cannon.

The hull has a hydraulically actuated bow flap to aid planing (sailing) with a maximum waterborne speed of 46 km/h (28.58 mph), comparable to fast ships and boats. Shrouded Honeywell waterjet propulsors are integrated into each side of the hull and hydraulically actuated chines cover the tracks while in seafaring mode.

The aluminum hull has caused some controversy due to protection and flammability concerns. However, aluminum hulls have been used for decades in military ground vehicles and boats. The rear loading ramp is not able to open while the vehicle is afloat. This is also typical of other swimming military ground vehicles.

Armament
It is fitted with composite armor, mine-blast protection, and a nuclear, biological and chemical defense system (NBC). The standard version also has a Bushmaster II 30 mm cannon, which fires up to 250 rounds per minute with single, burst and full auto capabilities up to 2,000 meters in all weather conditions.

Other features;
7.62 mm Machine Gun (1, coaxial)
Smoke / Gas Dispensers (32)
Rear Troop Hatch
Top Troop Hatches (2)
Reinforced Crew Compartment

Criticism
Reliability issues
In February 2007 the Washington Post reported the USMC was not satisfied with the reliability of the prototypes and was not going to initiate production as planned. Instead the Corps has asked for seven new prototypes, to address the current deficiencies which have caused an average of one failure for every four and a half hours of operation.

IED protection
In June 2007 members of the House Armed Services Subcommittee on Seapower and Expeditionary Forces sent a letter to the Marine Corps Commandant urging that the EFV be redesigned to give troops better protection against roadside bombs.